The following is a list of scientific literature that supports the association between macular pigments and risk of Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD), as well as the role of violet-blue light and oxidation as contributing factors for AMD.

Expand each section below for a list of content in each subject area:



Young, R.W. (1988). Solar radiation and age-related macular degeneration. Surv. Ophthalmol. 32, 252-269.

Fletcher, A.E., Bentham, G.C., Agnew, M., Young, I.S., Augood, C., Chakravarthy, U., de Jong, P., Rahu, M., Seland, J., Soubrane, G., et al. (2008). Sunlight exposure, antioxidants, and age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 126, 1396-1403.

Cruickshanks, K.J., Klein, R., and Klein, B.E.K. (1993). Sunlight and age-related macular degeneration – The Beaver Dam eye study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 111, 514-518.

Klein, R., Klein, B.E.K., Jensen, S.C., and Cruickshanks, K.J. (1998). The relationship of ocular factors to the incidence and progression of age-related maculopathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 116, 506-513.

Sui, G.Y., Liu, G.C., Liu, G.Y., Gao, Y.Y., Deng, Y., Wang, W.Y., Tong, S.H., and Wang, L. (2013). Is sunlight exposure a risk factor for age-related macular degeneration? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 97, 389-394.

Cheng, K.C., Hsu, Y.T., Liu, W.T., Huang, H.L., Chen, L.Y., He, C.X., Sheu, S.J., Chen, K.J., Lee, P.Y., Lin, Y.H., et al. (2021). The Role of Oxidative Stress and Autophagy in Blue-Light-Induced Damage to the Retinal Pigment Epithelium in Zebrafish In Vitro and In Vivo. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 22, 17.

Boulton, M., Rozanowska, M., and Rozanowski, B. (2001). Retinal photodamage. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biol. 64, 144-161.

Margrain, T.H., Boulton, M., Marshall, J., and Sliney, D.H. (2004). Do blue light filters confer protection against age-related macular degeneration? Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 23, 523-531.

Wu, J.M., Seregard, S., and Algvere, P.V. (2006). Photochemical damage of the retina. Surv. Ophthalmol. 51, 461-481.

Ham, W.T., Ruffolo, J.J., Mueller, H.A., and Guerry, D. (1980). The nature of retinal radiation damage: dependence on wavelength, power level and exposure time. Vision Res. 20, 1105-&.

Lawwill, T. (1982). Three major pathologic processes caused by light in the primate retina: a searchfor mechanisms. Trans. Am. Ophthalmol. Soc. 80, 517-579.

Lawwill, T., Crockett, S., and Currier, G. (1977). Retinal damage secondary to chronic light exposure – thresholds and mechanisms. Doc. Ophthalmol. 44, 379-402.

Godley, B.F., Shamsi, F.A., Liang, F.Q., Jarrett, S.G., Davies, S., and Boulton, M. (2005). Blue light induces mitochondrial DNA damage and free radical production in epithelial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 280, 21061-21066.

Roehlecke, C., Schaller, A., Knels, L., and Funk, R.H.W. (2009). The influence of sublethal blue light exposure on human RPE cells. Mol. Vis. 15, 1929-1938.

Alaimo, A., Linares, G.G., Bujjamer, J.M., Gorojod, R.M., Alcon, S.P., Martinez, J.H., Baldessari, A., Grecco, H.E., and Kotler, M.L. (2019). Toxicity of blue led light and A2E is associated to mitochondrial dynamics impairment in ARPE-19 cells: implications for age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Toxicol. 93, 1401-1415.

Ratnayake, K., Payton, J.L., Lakmal, O.H., and Karunarathne, A. (2018). Blue light excited retinal intercepts cellular signaling. Sci. Rep.-UK 8, 16.

Bernstein, P.S., Li, B., Vachali, P.P., Gorusupudi, A., Shyam, R., Henriksen, B.S., and Nolan, J.M. (2016). Lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-zeaxanthin: The basic and clinical science underlying carotenoid-based nutritional interventions against ocular disease. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 50, 34-66.

Wu, J., Cho, E.Y., Willett, W.C., Sastry, S.M., and Schaumberg, D.A. (2015). Intakes of lutein, zeaxanthin, and other carotenoids and age-related macular degeneration during 2 decades of prospective follow-up. JAMA Ophthalmol. 133, 1415-1424.

Bone, R.A., Landrum, J.T., Mayne, S.T., Gomez, C.M., Tibor, S.E., and Twaroska, E.E. (2001). Macular pigment in donor eyes with and without AMD: A case-control study. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42, 235-240.

Beatty, S., Murray, I.J., Henson, D.B., Carden, D., Koh, H.H., and Boulton, M.E. (2001). Macular pigment and risk for age-related macular degeneration in subjects from a Northern European population. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42, 439-446.

Bernstein, P.S., Zhao, D.Y., Wintch, S.W., Ermakov, I.V., McClane, R.W., and Gellermann, W. (2002). Resonance Raman measurement of macular carotenoids in normal subjects and in age-related macular degeneration patients. Ophthalmology 109, 1780-1787.

Kaya, S., Weigert, G., Pemp, B., Sacu, S., Werkmeister, R.M., Dragostinoff, N., Garhofer, G., Schmidt-Erfurth, U., and Schmetterer, L. (2012). Comparison of macular pigment in patients with age-related macular degeneration and healthy control subjects – a study using spectral fundus reflectance. Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh.) 90, e399-e403.

Trieschmann, M., Spital, G., Lommatzsch, A., van Kuijk, E., Fitzke, F., Bird, A.C., and Pauleikhoff, D. (2003). Macular pigment: quantitative analysis on autofluorescence images. Graefe’s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 241, 1006-1012.

Obana, A., Hiramitsu, T., Gohto, Y., Ohira, A., Mizuno, S., Hirano, T., Bernstein, P.S., Fujii, H., Iseki, K., Tanito, M., et al. (2008). Macular carotenoid levels of normal subjects and age-related maculopathy patients in a Japanese population. Ophthalmology 115, 147-157.

Ozawa, Y., Shigeno, Y., Nagai, N., Suzuki, M., Kurihara, T., Minami, S., Hirano, E., Shinoda, H., Kobayashi, S., and Tsubota, K. (2017). Absolute and estimated values of macular pigment optical density in young and aged Asian participants with or without age-related macular degeneration. BMC Ophthalmol. 17, 6.

Ozyurt, A., Kocak, N., Akan, P., Calan, O.G., Ozturk, T., Kaya, M., Karahan, E., and Kaynak, S. (2017). Comparison of macular pigment optical density in patients with dry and wet age-related macular degeneration. Indian J. Ophthalmol. 65, 477-481.

Fletcher, A.E., Bentham, G.C., Agnew, M., Young, I.S., Augood, C., Chakravarthy, U., de Jong, P., Rahu, M., Seland, J., Soubrane, G., et al. (2008). Sunlight exposure, antioxidants, and age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 126, 1396-1403.

McGill, T.J., Renner, L.M., and Neuringer, M. (2016). Elevated fundus autofluorescence in monkeys deficient in lutein, zeaxanthin, and Omega-3 fatty acids. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 57, 1361-1369.

Nolan, J.M., Power, R., Stringham, J., Dennison, J., Stack, J., Kelly, D., Moran, R., Akuffo, K.O., Corcoran, L., and Beatty, S. (2016). Enrichment of macular pigment enhances contrast sensitivity in subjects free of retinal disease: Central Retinal Enrichment Supplementation Trials – Report 1. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 57, 3429-3439.

Stringham, J.M., O’Brien, K.J., and Stringham, N.T. (2017). Contrast sensitivity and lateral inhibition are enhanced with macular carotenoid supplementation. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 58, 2291-2295.

Stringham, J.M., Stringham, N.T., and O’Brien, K.J. (2017). Macular Carotenoid Supplementation Improves Visual Performance, Sleep Quality, and Adverse Physical Symptoms in Those with High Screen Time Exposure. Foods 6, 13.

Nolan, J.M., Stack, J., Donovan, O.O., Loane, E., and Beatty, S. (2007). Risk factors for age-related maculopathy are associated with a relative lack of macular pigment. Exp. Eye Res. 84, 61-74.

Merle, B.M.J., Buaud, B., Korobelnik, J.F., Bron, A., Delyfer, M.N., Rougier, M.B., Savel, H., Vaysse, C., Creuzot-Garcher, C., and Delcourt, C. (2017). Plasma long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and macular pigment in subjects with family history of age-related macular degeneration: the Limpia Study. Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh.) 95, e763-e769.

Dietzel, M., Zeimer, M., Heimes, B., Claes, B., Pauleikhoff, D., and Hense, H.W. (2011). Determinants of macular pigment optical density and its relation to age-related maculopathy: results from the Muenster Aging and Retina Study (MARS). Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52, 3452-3457.

Mellerio, J., Ahmadi-Lari, S., van Kuijk, F., Pauleikhoff, D., Bird, A.C., and Marshall, J. (2002). A portable instrument for measuring macular pigment with central fixation. Curr. Eye Res. 25, 37-47.

Smith, W., Mitchell, P., and Leeder, S.R. (1996). Smoking and age-related maculopathy – The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Arch. Ophthalmol. 114, 1518-1523.

West, S.K., Rosenthal, F.S., Bressler, N.M., Bressler, S.B., Munoz, B., Fine, S.L., and Taylor, H.R. (1989). Exposure to sunlight and other risk-factors for age-related macular degeneration. Arch. Ophthalmol. 107, 875-879.

Loughman, J., Nolan, J.M., and Beatty, S. (2012). Impact of dietary carotenoid deprivation on macular pigment and serum concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin. Br. J. Nutr. 108, 2102-2103.

Hammond, B.R., Johnson, E.J., Russell, R.M., Krinsky, N.I., Yeum, K.J., Edwards, R.B., and Snodderly, D.M. (1997). Dietary modification of human macular pigment density. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 38, 1795-1801.

Sommerburg, O., Keunen, J.E.E., Bird, A.C., and van Kuijk, F. (1998). Fruits and vegetables that are sources for lutein and zeaxanthin: the macular pigment in human eyes. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 82, 907-910.

Gale, C.R., Hall, N.F., Phillips, D.I.W., and Martyn, C.N. (2003). Lutein and zeaxanthin status and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 44, 2461-2465.

Tan, J.S.L., Wang, J.J., Flood, V., Rochtchina, E., Smith, W., and Mitchell, P. (2008). Dietary antioxidants and the long-term incidence of age-related macular degeneration – The Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology 115, 334-341.

Pipis, A., Touliou, E., and Augustin, A.J. (2013). Macular pigment optical density in a Central European population. Ophthalmic Surgery Lasers & Imaging 44, 260-267.

Mellerio, J., Ahmadi-Lari, S., van Kuijk, F., Pauleikhoff, D., Bird, A.C., and Marshall, J. (2002). A portable instrument for measuring macular pigment with central fixation. Curr. Eye Res. 25, 37-47.

Margrain, T.H., Boulton, M., Marshall, J., and Sliney, D.H. (2004). Do blue light filters confer protection against age-related macular degeneration? Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 23, 523-531.

Sui, G.Y., Liu, G.C., Liu, G.Y., Gao, Y.Y., Deng, Y., Wang, W.Y., Tong, S.H., and Wang, L. (2013). Is sunlight exposure a risk factor for age-related macular degeneration? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 97, 389-394.

Schick, T., Ersoy, L., Lechanteur, Y.T.E., Saksens, N.T.M., Hoyng, C.B., Den Hollander, A.I., Kirchhof, B., and Fauser, S. (2016). History of sunlight exposure is a risk factor for age-related macular degeneration. Retina 36, 787-790.

Nolan, J.M., Stack, J., Donovan, O.O., Loane, E., and Beatty, S. (2007). Risk factors for age-related maculopathy are associated with a relative lack of macular pigment. Exp. Eye Res. 84, 61-74.

Merle, B.M.J., Buaud, B., Korobelnik, J.F., Bron, A., Delyfer, M.N., Rougier, M.B., Savel, H., Vaysse, C., Creuzot-Garcher, C., and Delcourt, C. (2017). Plasma long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and macular pigment in subjects with family history of age-related macular degeneration: the Limpia Study. Acta Ophthalmol. (Copenh.) 95, e763-e769.

Dietzel, M., Zeimer, M., Heimes, B., Claes, B., Pauleikhoff, D., and Hense, H.W. (2011). Determinants of macular pigment optical density and its relation to age-related maculopathy: results from the Muenster Aging and Retina Study (MARS). Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 52, 3452-3457.

Kirby, M.L., Beatty, S., Stack, J., Harrison, M., Greene, I., McBrinn, S., Carroll, P., and Nolan, J.M. (2011). Changes in macular pigment optical density and serum concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin in response to weight loss. Br. J. Nutr. 105, 1036-1046.

Hammond, B.R., and Caruso-Avery, M. (2000). Macular pigment optical density in a southwestern sample. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41, 1492-1497.

Ersoy, L., Ristau, T., Lechanteur, Y.T., Hahn, M., Hoyng, C.B., Kirchhof, B., den Hollander, A.I., and Fauser, S. (2014). Nutritional risk factors for age-related macular degeneration. Biomed Research International, 6.

Johnson, E.J. (2005). Obesity, lutein metabolism, and age-related macular degeneration: A web of connections. Nutr. Rev. 63, 9-15.

Zhang, Q.Y., Tie, L.J., Wu, S.S., Lv, P.L., Huang, H.W., Wang, W.Q., Wang, H., and Ma, L. (2016). Overweight, obesity, and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 57, 1276-1283.

Adams, M.K.M., Simpson, J.A., Aung, K.Z., Makeyeva, G.A., Giles, G.G., English, D.R., Hopper, J., Guymer, R.H., Baird, P.N., and Robman, L.D. (2011). Abdominal obesity and age-related macular degeneration. Am. J. Epidemiol. 173, 1246-1255.

Han, D.K., and Kim, H.K. (2021). Analyses of Risk Factors of Age-related Macular Degeneration Using         Routine Health Check-up Data. Journal of the Korean Ophthalmological Society 62, 46-54.

Makin, R.D., Argyle, D., Hirahara, S., Nagasaka, Y., Zhang, M., Yan, Z., Kerur, N., Ambati, J., and     Gelfand, B.D. (2020). Voluntary Exercise Suppresses Choroidal Neovascularization in Mice.       Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 61, 8.